Metaphoric Criticism
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[edit] Introduction
In straightforward, elementary terms, a metaphor is a comparison to some unrelated thing without using "like" or "as." This basic understanding of metaphor is addressed and refuted by Lakoff and Johnson in their essay, “Metaphors We Live By” (1980). They argue that metaphors are not merely figures of speech, but subconscious mental processes that help us make sense of our surroundings. Essentially, metaphors do more than describe some objective definition of reality. Metaphors allow us to create our own social reality – the way we perceive the world around us. Moreover, metaphors are a particularly powerful tool in rhetoric because we are often compelled to take some sort of action based on the metaphors we create.[1] The process of analyzing the effectiveness of metaphors in rhetoric is known as metaphoric criticism.
[edit] Artifact Analysis
To illustrate metaphoric criticism, we can analyze one of the preeminent speeches of the 20th century: Franklin D. Roosevelt’s First Inaugural Address, delivered in 1933. This speech is perhaps most famous for the line, “…the only thing we have to fear is fear itself.” Roosevelt had just defeated Herbert Hoover in a landslide election, fueled by the apex of the Great Depression and Roosevelt’s plans for a New Deal.[2] A transcript of the address can be found here: http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5057/
Metaphoric criticism begins with the comparison. In Roosevelt’s speech, the United States is fighting a war. Of course, the United States was not actually fighting a war in 1933, but therein lies the comparison. While many texts have isolated metaphors, limited to the context of a sentence or two, Roosevelt’s address fully employs the metaphor throughout the entirety of the speech. Immediately after the famous line, Roosevelt describes fear as, “…nameless, unreasoning, unjustified terror which paralyzes needed efforts to convert retreat into advance.”[2] Like a general commanding troops, Roosevelt uses warlike terminology to inspire America to halt its “retreat” from the events of the time. His audience was compelled to assume the role of active participants in a battle against economic conditions, instead of passive onlookers.
Roosevelt goes on to identify several policy initiatives, intended to reduce corruption in banking and put Americans back to work. He summarizes these proposals, saying, “There are the lines of attack” and, “…that if we are to go forward, we must move as a trained and loyal army willing to sacrifice for the good of a common discipline.”[2] Typically, one would believe an American soldier is the only citizen who must truly sacrifice for their country, but Roosevelt seeks to empower all Americans with the metaphor. He instructs the people to support his efforts by prioritizing the needs of the country above personal needs. Roosevelt once again creates a new social reality for the United States, calling all Americans to respond to personal and collective challenges as one would during a war.
Roosevelt, undoubtedly aware of his role in the newly created wartime reality, declares, “I assume unhesitatingly the leadership of this great army of our people dedicated to a disciplined attack upon our common problems.”[2] The metaphor is concluded with Roosevelt at the forefront of the army. Perhaps the effectiveness Roosevelt’s First Inaugural Address lies in the overt use of the overall metaphor. If the war metaphor was only used once, it would be categorized as a figure of speech, designed to emphasize a single sentence. However, by repeatedly integrating the metaphor at strategic moments in the speech, it becomes the social reality described by Lakoff and Johnson. Roosevelt’s speech foreshadowed his New Deal, a radical and influential Presidential endeavor by any standard. The American people, confident in General Roosevelt, would go on to elect President Roosevelt three more times, cementing his status as one of the iconic Presidents in American history.
[edit] Additional Resources
Suzanne M. Daughton (1993) Metaphorical transcendence: Images of the Holy War in Franklin Roosevelt's First Inaugural, Quarterly Journal of Speech, 79:4, 427-446[1]
Robert L. Ivie (1987) Metaphor and the Rhetorical Invention of Cold War “Idealists”, Communication Monographs, 54:2, 165-182[2]
Michael Leff (1983) I. Topical Invention and Metaphoric Interaction, Southern Speech Communication Journal, 48:3, 214-229[3]
[edit] References
- ↑ Lakoff, George and Mark Johnson. “Metaphors We Live By.” The Production of Reality: Essays and Readings on Social Interaction. Ed. Jodi O’Brien. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 2005. Print. 102-114.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 ""Only Thing We Have to Fear Is Fear Itself": FDR's First Inaugural Address." History Matters. George Mason University, n.d. Web. <http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5057/>.
